Hi Bernard,

Thanks for your input. I agree that there are variations in the classification of Kiauseng-Totok-Peranakan - yours is one that I do know of. Aside from your understanding and mine, I learned from a Mainland history geek that there are three types of overseas Chinese in their view:

- Huayi: 1st-gen immigrant (basically, totok)

- Huaqiao: children of 1st-gen immigrant ('qiao' is the same with qiaosheng/kiauseng)

- Huaren: following descendants of Huaqiao (incl. Peranakan)

My writing is based on the view of totok community in Surabaya whose predecessors arrived in early 20th century. To us, totok means 'fully Chinese', without regards to whether one speaks Hokkien/Hakka/Putonghua. In coastal cities of Java (Surabaya, Semarang, and the likes), there are sizeable Chinese Indonesian communities who retain a great deal of their Chinese heritage except a fluency in their dialect of origin or Putonghua, thanks to Soeharto. We consider these people as 'totok'.

An even stricter exclusion comes from Chinese Indonesian communities in outside Java, the majority of whom were largely less affected by Orde Baru's banning of Mandarin education. A friend from Medan once told me that no Chinese in Java were worthy of a 'totok' designation because they cannot comfortably converse in any Chinese dialect. Maybe, they suit your definition of 'Pernakan' best.

Ultimately, I do not consider myself as an expert in the history of Chinese Indonesian immigration.